Such a Great Cloud of Witnesses

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1478 A.D. - Spanish Inquisition A dark period in church history, the Spanish Inquisition was designed to root out those Jews and Moslems who had converted to Christianity but were still practicing their old religions, but the Inquisition soon fell into corruption and turned violent, as those accused were often tortured and killed. 1456 A.D. - The Gutenberg Bible Perhaps the single most important event in the ending of the medieval period was the development of the printing press and the publishing of the Gutenberg Bible, which would lead to the most widespread distribution of the scripture until this time in history. 1453 A.D. - Fall of Constantinople After existing for 1000 years as an eastern continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, Constantinople fall to the Turks marked the ending of an era, and was a landmark event in the birth of the modern world. 1431 A.D. - Death of Joan of Arc A peasant girl who claimed to have received visions from God, Joan of Arc rallied her countrymen against the English forces in France. After her capture by the English, she was burned for heresy, but eventually Joan was made a saint in the Catholic church. 1420-1432 A.D. - The Hussite Wars After the death of John Hus in 1415, the followers of the Bohemian preacher, appalled at the events at Constance, and the general state of the Catholic church, formally rejected the authority of the Pope over Bohemia. In response, the Catholics sent armies against the Hussites, but were defeated in a series of battles, and the Catholics were finally forced to allow the Hussites to reenter the church while keeping their distinctive emphasises on preaching scripture and clerical purity. 1418 A.D. - Imitation of Christ Published in 1418 by Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ remains one of the most important books of Christian devotion in church history. 1417 A.D. - The Council of Constance Besides resolving the Western Schism by the election of Pope Martin V, the Council of Constance also burned the great reformer John Hus at the stake after condemning him as a heretic. 1415 A.D. - The marytrdom of John Huss After spending years teaching a doctrine of grace and questioning the corruption of the Catholic church, John Huss was invited to the Council of Constance under promise of safe conduct to defend his theology. However, the council members soon decided that promises made to heretics did not have to be kept, and John Huss lost his life for his beliefs about Christianity in the flames at Constance. Deeply influenced by the teachings of John Wycliffe, John Huss' life and teaching pointed prefigured the dramatic events of the Reformation, which began only 100 years after his death. 1403 A.D. - Julian of Norwich writes Revelation of Divine Love After receiving a series of divine visions, Julian of Norwich writes Relevations of Divine Love, one of the most important works of medieval mysticism. 1378-1417 A.D. - Western Schism After the return of the papacy to Rome in 1377, the Catholic church split under as many as three popes during the period known as the Western Schism. 1347-1380 A.D. - Life of Catherine of Siena Born in Italy, Catherine of Siena was an influential mystic who was part of the Dominican order. Unlike most mystics, though, she was widely involved in the affairs of the world, and was instrumental in the return of the papacy to Rome from Avignon in 1377. 1328 - 1384 A.D. - Life of John Wylciffe One of most important of the pre-reformers, John Wycliffe is best known for his work in producing the first English translation of the Bible, but his impact reaches further even than that. Wycliffe desire to translate the Bible into the vernacular sprang from a belief that the Bible itself was the only rule for life and religion--an idea that would lead directly to the protestant reformation. He also spoke against transubstantiation and for a doctrine of savlation of grace. Both of these views were very unpopular with the Roman Catholic authorities--but, as Wycliffe wrote in his reply to Pope Gregory XI, he believed that it was more important to obey God than man. 1321 A.D. - Divine Comedy Written by Dante Alighieri, the Divine Comedy was one of the best statments of the Christian medieval vision; in the poem Virgil guides Dante through Hell, Purgatory, and into Paradise. Besides being one of the most important poetic works in Western history, the Divine Comedy formed the basis of modern Italian. 1309 - 1377 A.D. - The Avignon Papacy Due in part to its own corruption and meddling in the affairs of the state, the seat of the pope was moved from its historic home in Rome to the French city of Avignon in 1309, and remained there until 1377. Termed the "Babylonian Captivity" by some (notably Martin Luther), the years of the Avignon Papacy was a time of greatly diminished church power, and nearly total dependence of popes on good graces of the French kings. c. 1300-1361 A.D. - Life of Johannes Tauler An important German mystic who influenced Martin Luther, Johnannes Tauler was one of the most greatest preachers of the medieval period. 1290 - 1349 A.D. - Thomas Bradwardine An important influence on John Wycliffe, Thomas Bradwardine was known as the "The Profound Doctor" for his work in theology as well as mathematics. His most important book was On the Cause of God against the Pelagians, which argued for an Augustinian view of the human and divine wills. 1274 A.D. - Summa Theologiae Called the "Dumb Ox" by his schoolmates, Thomas of Aquinas joined the Dominican order as young man and went on to become the greatest theologian of the middle ages and arguably the greatest Roman Catholic theologian ever. Though Aquinas' On the Eternity of the World as well as his Summa Contra Gentiles were important works in their own right, Aqunias' Summa Theologiae, which he worked on until his early death in 1274, is the most significant theological work since Augustine's City of God. 1216 A.D. - Beginning of the Dominican Order Founded by the life and work of Dominic, the Dominicans focused their efforts on apologetics and preaching. The Dominicans were so concerned that they be able to focus on their scholarly tasks that they were the first monastic order since the time of Benedictine to shun manual labor. The most famous Dominican was Thomas Aquinas. St. Dominic 1215 A.D. - Fourth Lateran Council The Fourth Lateran Council, called by Pope Innocent III in manys was a high point in papal authority. The council was ruled by the pope, and among other things, officially established the Roman Catholic view of transubstantiation. 1209 A.D. - Francis of Assisi Takes Vow of Poverty One of the most important reform movement within the monastic and church world began in 1209 when a simple man from the little town of Assisi heard a sermon on Matthew 10:9 and was so convicted that he sold all he owned. The life and work of Francis soon attracted many followers, who formed themselves into a new monastic order, called the Franciscans, and devoted to poverty and service., which were emphasized in Francis' Rule. Francis also left a testament and series of prayers. 1173 A.D. - The Waldensian Movement Beginning with the conversion of Peter Waldo, the Waldensian movement in many ways prefigured the reformation of the Catholic church that would fully come four centuries later, and are a wonderful story of the providence and faithfulness of God to a people called out to follow him. 1157 A.D. - Lombard's Sentences Published Lombard's Four Books of the Sentences was a great work of scholarship, as it catagorized and noted the thoughts of earlier theologians and writers; the books would become the dominant theological textbook in medieval universities. Lombard's work also popularized the writings of John of Damascus in the western church. 1155 A.D. - Universities in Oxford and Paris Founded An important event in the rise of Scholastic Theology was the founding of universities all across Europe, and especially in Oxford and Paris. 1141 A.D. - Hildegard of Bingin Begins to Write Best known as a mystic, Hildegard was a nun who experienced many visions, and recorded them for others. She is also known for the many songs she wrote. 1122 A.D. - Concordant of Worms In 1122, the Concordant of Worms finally resolved the Investiture Controversy by forging a compromise between the church and state over who would control the appoint of ecclesiastical servants. 1121 A.D. - Teachings of Abelard Condemned Tellingly titling his autobiography History of Calamities, Abelard's life seemed to be full of one sadness after another; most notably his failed love affair with Heloise. Though he was an important part of the Scholastic Theology movement that led to the work of Thomas Aquinas, Abelard's writings often verged into heresy, and his teachings were officially condemned in 1121. 1115 A.D. - Bernard founds monastery at Clairvaux An important reformer, preacher, mystic and theologian, Bernard founded what would be known as the Cistercian order in 1153. His most famous work is On Loving God. 1095 A.D. - First Crusade Driven by visions of glory and promises of salvation, thousands of Christians left their homes in Europe and journeyed west to join in the first Crusade, which was called by Pope Urban II, and resulted in the retaking of Jerusalem (which was later lost again to the Moslems). The story of the Crusades is one of the darker episodes in the history of the church, and is still the cause of much Moslem hatred of Christians. 1093 A.D. - Anselm becomes Archbishop of Canterbury Besides holding the post of Archbishop of Canterbury, Anselm was famous for creating the ontological argument for God. His most important works was the Proslogon, which argued the existence of God. Significantly, he was also the first theologian to fully understand and write about the doctrine of the atonement, in his Cur Deus Homo? 1077 A.D. - Lay investiture controversy For centuries, there had been conflict in the Roman church over who would have the power to appoint bishops to their posts; the Pope or the King. In the year 1077, the issue came to a head when Pope Gregory VII excommunicated the Holy Roman Emperor, who then gave into Gregory's demands; in some ways this date marks a peak in Papal power over the state. 1073 - 1085 A.D. - Papal Reign of Gregory VII Born as Hildebrand in Tuscany, Gregory VII rose out of obscurity to become one of the most powerful popes in church history. Believing that the church had been entrusted by God to his work on earth, Gregory sought to force all other powers to submit to his own authority, both in the church, as well as the state. He also encouraged the institution of celibacy for church officers, and led the battle against simony. 1054 A.D. - East-West Church Schism The official split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches in 1054 had been centuries in its development and had many factors. The churches remain seperate to this day, though some of the tensions have eased. 988 A.D. - Conversion of Russia Hoping to unify the diverse parts of his Russian kingdom, Vladimir is said to have sent envoys to the Moslems, Catholics and Eastern Orthodox church in order to discern what religion he and his people should follow. When he chose the Eastern Orthodox church, it would set the pattern for the church in Russia until the present day. 909 A.D. - Monastery founded at Cluny The charter of the Cluny monastery provides a glimpse into what would put it at the center of what would become a continent-wide reformation of monastic practice; the small Cluny monastery birthed many other monasteries, and all shared a vision for a stricter adherence to the ideals of the monastic movement. 800 A.D. - Rule of Charlemagne On Christmas day, 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III. Charlemagne rule ensured peace over a large part of Europe, and led to a flowering of Christian scholarship and art, known as the Carolingian Renaissance. More importantly, the coronation of Charlemagne marked the rebirth of the Christian empire. Statue of Charlemagne in Paris. 787 A.D. - Second Council of Nicea The Second Council of Nicea was called to deal with the problem of iconoclasm, which centered around the right use of images or icons in public and private worship. The council resolved that icons and images could be used in public and private worship, and could "venerated," but not "worshipped." 732 A.D. - The Battle of Tours Though Islam was only a century old, it had already swept through North Africa and Spain and threatened the heart of western Europe when the Moslem army was confronted and defeated by an army of the Frankish king Charles Martel. The consequence of that clash, called The Battle of Tours can hadly be overstated; suffice to say that North Africa became a historic stronghold of the Islamic faith--and that could have been the fate of western Europe, which instead became the heart of Christendom. 731 A.D. - Bede's History is Published Much of what is known about the establishment and growth of the Church in England is through the work of Bede, an English historian whose Ecclesiastical History was published in 731. 716 A.D. - Boniface begins mission to the Germans Boniface, whose name was first Wynfrith, was born in England but was famous for his work among the German peoples. The story of Boniface's life is one of adventure and obedience to the gospel. By his work many of the pagans peoples of Germania were won to Christ--it is said that Boniface publicly challanged the pagan gods by destroying their sacred groves, thus proving their falsehood. Boniface was eventually killed by those Germans he sought to minister to, in 754. c. 698 A.D. - Lindisfarne Gospels The creation of the Gospels in Lindisfarne, small island of the northeast coast of England, was a major event in Christian art. Produced under the leadership of Eadfrith, the gospels are extensively illustrated Latin versions of the four gospels; and are beautiful examples of the possiblities of Christian culture. Detail of the Christmas Gospel page from St. Matthew 676 - 749 A.D. - Life of John of Damascus On of the most important fathers of the eastern church, John was born to a wealthy family in Damascus. His life took a number of strange turns until he ended in a monastery where he would spend the rest of his days. His most important book was An Excact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, a work which helped to define the historic Eastern Orthodox church. 663 A.D. - Synod of Whitby Because the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons came directly from representatives of Rome, there were important differences between the Anglo-Saxon church and the older and smaller Celtic church, also in England. In response to these issues, the Synod of Whitby was called in 663. The synod lasted until 664, and resulted in the establishment of a unified English church under Roman rule. 635 A.D. - Christianity first reaches China Christianity reaches the Chinese empire through the work of Alopen, a Nestorian missionary, likely from Persia. The ruling T'ang dynasty accepted Christianity, giving it imperial favor, but the Nestorians never found acceptance with the larger population, and the Chinese church disappeared in the 10th century. 622 A.D. - The Birth of Islam To this point in its history, the Church's primary competition had been the religions of the ancient world; greek philosophy and various kinds of paganism. But in the 7th century, by the sovreignity of God, a new enemy of true faith was born through the life and visions of Mohammed. Islam, as this new religion would be called, has fought with the Christian church since its beginning, and continues to do so today. Though the Islamic faith claims to be derived from God's call to Abraham, it is mostly based on the teachings of the Koran. 597 A.D. - Augustine's mission to the Anglo-Saxons Though Ireland and Scotland, as well as parts of England, had been converted to Christianity by this time, the powerful Anglo-Saxons, who dominated England, remained pagan. In response, Pope Gregory I sent Augustine, the prior of a monastery in Rome, to preach to the pagan English. Though Augustine was at first reluctant to complete the mission, he arrived on English soil in 597. In the providence of God, the Anglo-Saxons were prepared to hear the gospel, as the wife of Ethelbert was already a Christian, and Ethelbert soon converted as well, bringing many of his subjects with him. The was soon a growing church in England, and Augustine was appointed the first Archbishop of Canterbury.